Feature Articles
Compilation of Drug-related Studies and Surveys
Sources
Central Narcotics Bureau
Ministry of Home Affairs
Singapore Prison Service
11 March 2026
This post is a compilation of recent drug-related studies and surveys conducted by MHA, our partners as well as third-party experts.
National-level General Population Surveys on Drug-related Topics
Institute of Mental Health’s 2022 Health and Lifestyle Survey Findings on Illicit Drug Consumption
The Institute of Mental Health (IMH) conducted the 2022 Health and Lifestyle Survey from April 2021 to July 2022, which examined, among other topics, the prevalence of illicit drug consumption by Singapore residents (i.e. Singapore Citizens and Permanent Residents). The study analysed data from 6,509 randomly selected Singapore residents aged 15 to 65 years.
Based on the survey findings, it is estimated that about 0.7% of Singapore residents had consumed an illicit drug at least once in the last 12 months.
Overall, the key findings reveal that the majority view illicit drugs to be very harmful, with strict laws and awareness of harms being cited by survey respondents to be their top reasons for staying away from drugs. On the other hand, respondents who had consumed drugs cited curiosity and peer influence among their top reasons for consuming drugs, and it was observed that illicit drug consumption starts young, with 41.8% of those who had consumed drugs saying that they had started drug consumption before the age of 18. Individuals who had consumed drugs also have higher prevalence of mental disorders.
Links:
National Drug Perception Survey 2023
The National Council Against Drug Abuse (NCADA) conducts the National Drug Perception Survey regularly to examine the public’s (i) attitudes towards drugs and drug-taking; (ii) perceptions of the drug policies in Singapore; and (iii) views towards Preventive Drug Education efforts. For the 2023 survey, approximately 3,000 youths and 1,500 adults were surveyed, using a representative sampling of Singapore’s population.
The survey found that over 90% of youths and adults agreed that maintaining a drug-free environment is in the best interest of Singapore. There was also strong support for Singapore’s drug laws, with 96% of adults and 90% of youths agreeing that drug consumption should remain illegal. However, only 55% of youths believed cannabis to be more harmful than tobacco. In this regard, preventive drug education matters more than ever, especially since 90% of youths and adults agreed that preventive drug education in school is important to discourage drugs, and 91.7% of youths whose parents/guardians had spoken to them about the harms of drugs stated that the conversation deterred them from experimenting.
Link: NCADA Perception Surveys
Survey on Singapore Residents’ Attitudes Towards the Death Penalty 2023
This survey was first commissioned by the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) in 2021 (“2021 Survey”), which found that there was very strong support among Singaporeans on the use of the death penalty for the most serious crimes, such as murder and trafficking a significant amount of drugs. MHA conducted the survey again in 2023 (“2023 Survey”) to understand how the attitudes of Singapore residents might have changed over time. Similar to the first run of the survey, approximately 2,000 Singapore residents, comprising both Singapore Citizens and Permanent Residents, aged 15 and above, were surveyed through face-to-face interviews.
Compared to the 2021 Survey, the 2023 Survey found that:
A higher proportion of respondents (77.4%) agreed with the use of the death penalty for the most serious crimes (2021 Survey: 73.7%).
A higher proportion of respondents (68.7%) strongly agreed or agreed that the mandatory death penalty was appropriate as the punishment for trafficking a significant amount of drugs (2021 Survey: 65.6%).
A higher proportion of respondents (87.9%) strongly agreed or agreed that the death penalty deterred the trafficking of a significant amount of drugs (2021 Survey: 83.2%).
A higher proportion of respondents (79.7%) strongly agreed or agreed that the death penalty was more effective compared to life imprisonment in deterring people from trafficking a significant amount of drugs (2021 Survey: 73.7%).
Perceptions of Residents in Regional Cities on Singapore’s Crime Situation and Law 2024
The Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) commissioned a survey in 2024 to understand the perceptions of residents in regional cities on Singapore’s crime situation and laws. 12,000 residents from 6 regional cities (i.e., 2,000 respondents from each city), aged 20 to 64, participated in the online survey. This is the second run of the survey; the first run was conducted in 2018.
The survey found that the majority of respondents continued to:
Be aware of laws against serious crimes in Singapore, including the use of death penalty. For instance, 95.0% were aware that drug consumption is a crime in Singapore,95.2% were aware that drug trafficking is a crime in Singapore, and 86.8% were aware that people can receive the death penalty for trafficking a substantial amount of drugs in Singapore.
Believe that Singapore’s strict laws and effective law enforcement deter people from committing serious crimes. For instance, most respondents believed that people would likely be caught if they consumed drugs (86.4%) or got involved in drug trafficking activities (89.6%) in Singapore. In addition, most respondents believed that people would likely be punished if they were caught consuming drugs (88.2%) or being involved in drug trafficking activities (91.0%) in Singapore.
Believe that the use of the death penalty in Singapore deters the trafficking of drugs specifically and the commission of serious crimes in general, and is a more effective deterrent than life imprisonment. For instance, 84.2% believed that the death penalty deters people from trafficking substantial amounts of drugs into Singapore, and 82.5% believed that the death penalty is a more effective deterrent than life imprisonment in discouraging people from trafficking drugs into Singapore.
Institute of Policy Studies’ Study on Attitudes Towards the Use of Capital Punishment
The Institute of Policy Studies (IPS) conducted a survey from October 2019 to January 2020 to understand public opinion in Singapore of the death penalty in Singapore. The study took a comprehensive and nuanced look at the level of knowledge about issues relating to the death penalty, and the level of public support for the death penalty in Singapore. 2,000 Singapore residents, comprising both Singapore Citizens and Permanent Residents, aged 18 and above, were surveyed through face-to-face interviews.
The study found that 61.5% of respondents believed that the death penalty should be mandatory for a person convicted of intentionally trafficking a substantial amount of drugs. In addition, 78.9% believed that the death penalty deters people from trafficking substantial amounts of drugs into Singapore because of the potential of being caught, convicted and sentenced to death, and 68.0% believed that the death penalty is more effective than life imprisonment in discouraging people from trafficking drugs into Singapore.
Studies Related to Adverse Impact of Drug Abuse
Illicit Drugs: Patterns of Use, Dependence, and Contribution to Disease Burden in Developed Countries (2025)
This chapter in the International Encyclopaedia of Public Health (Third Edition) documents the global pattern of illicit drug use and its impact on the health burden in developed countries. Globally, it is estimated that 296 million of adults have used drugs (with cannabis being the most common drug) at least once in 2021. However, varying methods used by different countries and the absence of a single method to derive at the prevalence of drug use led to challenges in obtaining accurate estimates. Nonetheless, illicit drug use remains a global concern as the physical, psychological, and social harm pose a significant impact to these countries.
This chapter provides an overview of the multiple harms of the use of illicit drugs such as cannabis, opioids, and methamphetamines. It also posits the importance to consider the sociopolitical and cultural context of the country in the development of policies or approaches against illicit drugs.
World Drug Report 2025, Contemporary Issues on Drugs: The Impact of Drug Use
This chapter in the World Drug Report 2025, published by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), describes the multi-faceted impacts of drug use across different dimensions (i.e., health, public safety and security, socioeconomic functioning, social impacts, and criminal justice), before deep diving into the impact of drug use on the health of people who use drugs, their families, communities, and society.
The chapter highlights that any episode of drug use has the potential to result in immediate health harms to the person using drugs as it can lead to acute health effects such as intoxication, overdose, psychiatric symptoms such as psychosis and paranoia, as well as accidents and injuries resulting from psychomotor impairment. Longer-term impacts include infectious diseases (e.g., HIV and Hepatitis C), cardiovascular and pulmonary conditions, cancers, and mental health disorders such as depression and schizophrenia. In worst cases, drug use leads to mortality. In 2021, an estimated 28 million healthy years of life were lost due to disability and premature death attributed to drug use, nearly doubling over the past two decades.
The chapter also highlights that the bearers of the impact of health harms extend beyond the individual drug user to families, children and communities. Children of parents who use drugs or suffer from drug use disorders are at a higher risk of having their developmental needs unmet, of experiencing impaired attachment and emotional distress, and even orphanhood because of fatal overdoses of their parents. Maternal exposure to drugs during pregnancy can have an impact on infants – including a risk of premature birth, neonatal abstinence syndrome, and potential long-term neurodevelopmental impairment. Community impacts include road traffic accidents, injuries and fatalities caused by drivers under the influence of drugs, which endanger not only themselves but also people around them
Link: World Drug Report 2025, Contemporary Issues on Drugs: The Impact of Drug Use (Pages 13-42) | UNODC
Home Team Journal Special Issue: Spotlight on drugs (2020)
In this Special Issue of the Home Team Journal, published by the Home Team Academy, researchers from various backgrounds and disciplines share insights on various drug-related themes, including consequences of liberalising drug policies, socio-economic impact of drugs on societies, the effectiveness of Singapore’s anti-drug policies and the public’s support for them.
Link: HT Journal Special Issue: Spotlight on Drugs | Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) Publications
Cost of Drug-involved and Drug-attributable Crime in Singapore (2020)
A research team from the Nanyang Technological University (NTU) conducted a study on the cost of drug crime in Singapore. The objective of the study was to estimate the aggregate cost of drug-involved and drug-attributable crime in Singapore by drug type in 2010 and 2015.
The findings showed in quantifiable terms that drug abuse is harmful and imposes social and economic costs not only to the drug abusers but also to the victims of their crime, both the abusers and victims’ families, and society as a whole.
One of the most important areas of risk in the use of drugs is the link between drugs and crime. When the intensity of drug use becomes very serious, drugs and crime are directly and significantly correlated. Drug use also amplifies and perpetuates pre-existing criminal activities. Generally, drug users report greater involvement with crime and are more likely than other non-users to have criminal records; persons with criminal records are much more likely to be drug users than others, and crimes rise in number as drug use increases.
The key findings from the study are:
The costs of drug-involved crime were S$1 billion in 2010 and S$1.23 billion in 2015, amounting to 0.31 per cent and 0.30 per cent respectively of Singapore’s prevailing Gross Domestic Product (GDP) then. This economic burden is equivalent to a per capita cost of S$266 in 2010 and S$316 in 2015.
By drug type, heroin accounted for the highest cost of Drug-involved Crime, followed by methamphetamine. Taken together, heroin and methamphetamine accounted for 76% (estimated at S$ 0.76 billion) of the total cost in 2010 and 95% (estimated at S$1.17 billion) of the total cost in 2015.
Systematic Literature Review of Effects of Drug Abuse in Pregnancy (2023)
The KK Women's and Children's Hospital (KKH) conducted a systematic literature review of the existing evidence available for drug abuse in pregnancy.
The findings revealed that the abuse of methamphetamine (“Ice”), heroin, cannabis (marijuana), cocaine, 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, or “Ecstasy”) and various new psychoactive substances (NPS) during pregnancy leads to detrimental maternal, neonatal and paediatric outcomes.
The studies in the literature review by KKH acknowledged that many other important factors such as use of more than one drug (polysubstance abuse), poor lifestyle factors, as well as maternal health and nutrition contribute to the above-mentioned negative effects of drug abuse in pregnancy. In light of this, early identification of pregnant drug abusers is crucial. Timely intervention, stopping drug abuse and providing necessary medical and social support can help to reduce the potential risks and negative effects highlighted.
KKH presented their findings at the Singapore Paediatric and Perinatal Annual Congress (SIPPAC 2022) and the Asia Pacific Maternal and Child Health Conference & Integrated Platform for Research in Advancing Maternal and Child Health Outcomes (IPRAMHO) International Meeting 2023.
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Island of Hope: Psychological Perspectives on Drug Harm Prevention (2026)
This book offers the first in-depth exploration of how psychological science drives Singapore's distinctive approach to drug harm prevention. Drawing from a decade of work by psychologists and correctional rehabilitation specialists from Singapore's Ministry of Home Affairs, this groundbreaking volume showcases how evidence-based practice informs policies, prevention, treatment strategies, and community engagement for drug offenders. Through a synthesis of local research and global insights, the book unpacks four pivotal dimensions: the theoretical underpinnings of harm prevention, the psychology of prevention and deterrence, the key components of effective rehabilitation, and the emerging challenges posed by evolving drug trends. Both timely and thought-provoking, Island of Hope illuminates how psychological principles strengthen resilience and promote recovery and reintegration — within individuals, families, and communities — in the ongoing effort to safeguard society from drug-related harm. A must-read for addiction professionals, psychologists, policymakers, researchers, and anyone interested in advancing drug harm prevention in a rapidly changing landscape.
Link: Island of Hope: Psychological Perspectives on Drug Harm Prevention | World Scientific Connect
Studies Related to Youth and Preventive Drug Education (PDE)
Behavioural Analysis of Youth Drug Offenders (2015)
The Task Force on Youths and Drugs commissioned a mixed-methods study (December 2014 - April 2015) that surveyed 700 youths (12-29 years), comprising 237 drug abusers and 463 non-abusers, and supplemented the survey with 28 in-depth case-history interviews, 18 focus-group discussions and two literature reviews.
The analysis revealed distinct demographic profiles for cannabis and methamphetamine (“Ice”) abusers. Cannabis users were more ethnically diverse and tended to come from middle- or high-SES households, whereas “Ice” users were predominantly of Malay ethnicity and half originated from low-SES families.
Both cannabis abusers and non-abusers reported strong family support and good academic performance, contrasting sharply with “Ice” abusers who exhibited weaker parental supervision and lower school achievement.
Peer influence emerged as a key driver of drug initiation for all abusers: cannabis users were introduced to the drug mainly by school friends, while “Ice” users obtained it from neighbourhood friends. Both groups displayed higher rates of under-age smoking, school truancy and prior arrests compared with non-abusers.
Social-media exposure and internet information shaped cannabis users’ attitudes, leading them to perceive cannabis as less harmful and less addictive than tobacco, and to underestimate legal repercussions.
Non-abusers were deterred primarily by awareness of legal and health consequences and by limited community access to drugs.
Overall, the study highlights the need for targeted, multi-stakeholder interventions that address peer networks, media influence, socioeconomic factors and curriculum-based education to curb youth drug abuse.
Link: Protecting our Youths from Drugs | Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) Newsroom
Studies Related to Drug Rehabilitation and Desistance
Agency, Social Relationships, and Desistance of Ex-Offenders with Drug Abuse History (2017)
Desistance comprises the cessation of offending (primary desistance) and the adoption of a non-offending identity (secondary desistance). Prior research links a “language of agency” and satisfying prosocial relationships (family, marriage, employment) to sustained desistance. This study aims to examine how agency and social relationships relate to desistance among Singapore ex-offenders with drug-abuse histories.
A mixed-methods design was employed. Quantitatively, 78 male desisters (mean age 48.2 years; mean desistance 8.3 years) who had been out of prison for more than a year completed scales measuring perceived agency (Hope Scale, Agency-to-Desist Scale) and social relationships (Family Support Satisfaction, Social Provisions Scale) 4. Qualitatively, 44 participants took part in semi-structured interviews and focus-group discussions.
The key quantitative findings indicated that agency scores correlated positively with secondary desistance (generativity) and negatively with criminal identity. Social-relationship scores showed similar patterns (positive with generativity; negative with criminal identity). Qualitative interviews revealed that agency served as a motivational force for change and action-taking, while social relationships functioned as both triggers and maintenance mechanisms for sustained desistance, confirming their importance as key mechanisms in the desistance process among Singapore offenders.
Enhancing agency (motivation, behavioural commitment) and rehabilitating social environments (family interventions, community support) can strengthen secondary desistance.
Link: Agency, Social Relationships, and Desistance of Ex-Offenders with Drug Abuse History
From Relapse to Desistance: The Process of Desistance for Female Drug Abusers (2022)
This study adopted a process perspective in understanding desistance factors over time and explored potential desistance signalling in a local context amongst female drug abusers. Desistance for drug abusers is described as a “journey filled with ups and downs, that involves multiple relapses before one successfully stays drug-free”
The study examined two groups: repeat female drug abusers and desisters who had been drug-free for more than five years in the community.
Successful female desisters portrayed the following attributes: better coping and reasoning skills, derive meaning and contentment from life, supportive social relationships, and place a strong emphasis on personal development .
Gender-responsive needs: Compared with male desisters, female desisters place greater importance on relational factors. Their motivation to change is often driven by family and children, and they rely heavily on emotional support, financial assistance, and supervision from significant others.
Tailoring programmes to address the relational motivations and comprehensive support needs of female drug abusers can enhance desistance outcomes.
Link: From Relapse to Desistance: The Process of Desistance for Female Drug Abusers
Commentary on Day et al.: Singapore’s approach toward drug rehabilitation (2025)
This commentary published in Addiction embraces the concept of recovery capital as an essential component of drug recovery and abstinence as recommended by Day and colleagues. This commentary outlines Singapore’s approach towards drug rehabilitation including employment support, peer-based recovery support services, housing, family and community support and the practice of cultural adapted interventions.
Link: Commentary on Day et al.: Singapore’s approach toward drug rehabilitation | Wiley Online Library